Inclusion Criteria:

1. Aged 65 or older
2. Able to stand steadily without assistance on one leg for an average of <5 seconds (determined by averaging the time for both legs)
3. Able to attend all scheduled sessions (by self-report)

Exclusion Criteria:

1. Non-ambulatory (wheelchair-bound); this precludes required balance testing; however, volunteers requiring assistive devices such as canes and walkers are not excluded
2. received chiropractic care or other manual care within the past three months (by self-report)
3. initiated exercise program for balance / lower body strength within the past month (by self-report)

4. contraindications to SMT or mild-exertion exercise, as determined by the clinician through physical exam and x-rays (if indicated).

   Contraindications include but are not limited to: signs and symptoms associated with vertebrobasilar insufficiency (including facial numbness, diplopia, drop attacks, dysphagia, and ataxia which are not fatiguable or habituable with repeated provocative head positioning); unstable or severe medical condition; severe osteoporosis, fracture or other osseous abnormalities; "high cardiovascular risk", i.e. persons with known severe cardiovascular, pulmonary or metabolic disease, or one or more major signs/symptoms suggestive of cardiovascular and pulmonary disease

5. absence of indications for SMT, as determined by the clinician through history, physical exam, orthopedic tests, and static and motion palpation.

   Indications for SMT include identification of decreased or increased spinal joint mobility usually accompanied by tenderness and muscle tension and spasm;

6. unable to understand English adequately to complete study forms and questionnaires, because we do not have study personnel fluent in other languages;
7. central causes of vertigo, including arteriovenous malformations, cerebral hemorrhage, brainstem vascular disease, tumors and demyelenating diseases.